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US Air Force Secretary Troy Meink recently drew attention by confirming that the United States has deployed weapons in space, but he did not disclose what the weapons are, how they operate or whether they are designed to target other objects in orbit. The lack of information is not limited to American space weapons. Experts say uncertainty over the military capabilities of satellites and the development of new weapons remains a major concern as countries expand their activities in space. What is known about space weapons Speaking at a defence conference, Meink said the United States had deployed “on-orbit space control weapons capable of defending the Joint Force against hostile adversary action”. The Joint Force refers to US military forces operating together. However, he did not specify the type of weapons involved. The 2026 Global Counterspace Capabilities Report, published by the nonprofit Secure World Foundation using publicly available information, provides an overview of potential space weapons and related technologies. The report identifies five categories of counterspace capabilities and examines systems being developed by 13 countries, including the United States, Russia, China, India, Australia, France, Iran and Israel. These capabilities include satellites that can approach, inspect, disable or destroy other spacecraft. The report also covers missiles launched from the ground, aircraft or ships to physically destroy satellites. Other technologies include electronic warfare systems that disrupt satellite communications, lasers and high-powered microwaves that can blind or damage satellite sensors, and cyber operations targeting space networks. Victoria Samson, chief director of space security and stability at the foundation, which promotes the peaceful use of space, said the existence and physical location of satellites were generally transparent, but their capabilities and intended purposes were much harder to determine. The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, based in Vienna, maintains a register linking space objects to the countries responsible for them. Under a 1976 agreement, participating states must provide information about launches conducted by governments and private companies, along with the general functions of the objects. However, they are not required to disclose their specific purposes. Some space technologies can serve both civilian and military purposes. In 2021, it emerged that China had tested a satellite equipped with a robotic arm capable of approaching another object, grabbing it and moving it out of orbit. China used such technology in 2022 to tow one of its defunct satellites out of orbit for the first time. The United States also warned two years ago that Russia was developing a new space-based anti-satellite weapon, although the White House said the threat was not imminent at the time. Then-White House national security spokesman John Kirby declined to say whether the weapon could carry nuclear warheads but said it would violate the Outer Space Treaty. Russia denied developing the capability. A treaty born during the Cold War The Outer Space Treaty is the main international agreement governing how countries explore and use space. The United States, Russia, China and all other nuclear-armed nations are parties to the treaty. Article IV prohibits signatories from placing nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in Earth's orbit, installing them on celestial bodies or stationing them in space in any other way. The treaty also establishes space as an area to be used for peaceful purposes. Agreed upon in 1967 during the Cold War, the treaty emerged as the United States and the Soviet Union competed to explore space and conducted nuclear tests beyond Earth's atmosphere. The space environment was vastly different at the time. Jonathan McDowell, a retired astronomer at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, has tracked satellite launches for more than 40 years. By the end of 1967, only 128 satellites were orbiting Earth and communicating with the planet, according to McDowell. All were part of publicly funded, state-backed programmes. Today, around 16,810 functioning satellites are in orbit, he said, many of them operated by private companies such as SpaceX, which runs the Starlink satellite network. The dangers of nuclear weapons in space became clear through a series of tests conducted by the two superpowers. In 1962, the United States detonated several atomic bombs in space under Operation Fishbowl. The first test, known as Starfish Prime, was launched from an atoll southwest of Hawaii. The explosion created an artificial radiation belt that destroyed several satellites and partially disrupted street lighting and telephone lines in Hawaii. The Soviet Union also conducted nuclear tests in space under Project K between 1961 and 1962. The tests caused power-grid failures, disrupted telephone lines and triggered a fire that destroyed an entire power plant in Kazakhstan. These tests demonstrated the serious risks that nuclear explosions in space could pose to civilian infrastructure and communications on Earth. They helped push the superpowers towards an agreement banning nuclear weapons and other weapons of mass destruction in space. Experts point to gaps in international law Despite the treaty, analysts say international law has not kept pace with modern space technology and military developments. Jessica West, a senior researcher at Canadian peace and security research institute Project Ploughshares, said the legal framework governing space needed fundamental changes. She described the Outer Space Treaty as a constitutional foundation that remained relevant but said the international community had failed to build a sufficiently strong legal framework around it. She highlighted the need for better mechanisms to verify space activities and broader rules addressing conventional weapons in space. Michelle Hanlon, executive director of the Center for Air and Space Law at the University of Mississippi School of Law, also pointed to a gap in the treaty, saying it did not adequately prohibit conventional weapons in space. No agreement on what constitutes a space weapon International negotiations on a new agreement to ban all weapons in space have stalled partly because countries cannot agree on what qualifies as a space weapon, Samson said. Many technologies have both civilian and military applications, making it difficult to distinguish weapons from equipment used for peaceful purposes. “You can get up close to a satellite to refuel it, but you can also get up close to a satellite to release objects at it, shine a laser at it, or try to jam it,” Samson said. The debate comes as the United States, under President Donald Trump, places greater emphasis on space-based military capabilities. During his first term, Trump established the US Space Force as a separate military branch in 2019. In his second term, he announced the Golden Dome missile defence system, which includes plans to deploy weapons in space. Russia and China have attempted to introduce a new treaty prohibiting the placement of all weapons in space, but the proposals have faced obstacles, partly because of disagreements over definitions. Washington has also argued that the proposals fail to address ground-based anti-satellite missiles, which can generate large amounts of dangerous debris when used. In November 2021, Russia launched an anti-satellite missile that destroyed a defunct Soviet-era satellite, creating more than 1,500 pieces of debris. The fragments increased risks to astronauts aboard the International Space Station, where US and Russian crews were present, and China's Tiangong space station. With negotiations on a comprehensive treaty stalled, international discussions have increasingly focused on responsible behaviour in space, including measures to prevent the accumulation of dangerous debris. Space weapons may not involve physical destruction Samson said the United States had long followed a policy of avoiding the creation of space debris because it threatens the safety of spaceflight and can damage American interests. For that reason, she said, the weapons Meink referred to could be non-kinetic systems, such as electronic jammers that disrupt communications, rather than weapons that physically destroy targets. Space debris is produced not only by weapons but also by collisions between satellites, which can break them into countless fragments and smaller particles. Travelling at high speeds, these fragments can damage or destroy other spacecraft. Steven Freeland, an emeritus professor of international law at Western Sydney University and a professorial fellow at Bond University, warned that such collisions could trigger a chain reaction. “If you start having collisions causing more debris, and more debris causing more collisions, you run the risk of this irreversible cascading effect,” he said. According to the European Space Agency, space surveillance networks regularly track around 46,950 pieces of debris in Earth's orbit. Statistical models suggest that millions of smaller pieces of space debris also remain in orbit, posing additional risks to satellites and other spacecraft.

Scientists in Argentina are investigating an unusually high number of southern right whale calves found dead along the country's Patagonian coast, raising concerns about the health of the species. Dozens of dead calves have washed ashore around Peninsula Valdes, a major breeding ground for southern right whales in Chubut province. The whales, once hunted to near extinction during the 19th and 20th centuries, now return to the peninsula's sheltered waters to give birth and nurse their young. Marcela Uhart, a veterinarian with the One Health Institute at the University of California, Davis, is leading the investigation as head of the Southern Right Whale Health Monitoring Program. "We're looking into the whale calf deaths based on 23 years of monitoring that we have of this same population. That's what allows us to say that this is an unusual event," Uhart said. Researchers' leading theory is that the calves are developing infections caused by marine bacteria that enter their bodies through wounds inflicted by kelp gulls, Uhart said. For decades, the seabirds have attacked whales as they surface to breathe, feeding on their skin and blubber. Adult whales have learned to expose only their heads while keeping their backs underwater, making it harder for gulls to reach them. Calves, however, are unable to use the same technique and are more vulnerable to attacks. Dead calves have been washing ashore around Puerto Madryn, including areas near the city's waterfront, alarming residents and tourists. While residents have reported seeing hundreds of carcasses, researchers have declined to provide a death toll, saying the number will become clearer after the season ends in late November. Uhart and a team of biologists, veterinarians and park rangers are searching for dead whales from the shore and using boats, aircraft and drones. The researchers photograph and examine the carcasses and collect skin and organ samples before decomposition makes testing difficult. The samples are being analysed at a veterinary school in Tandil, farther north. Bacteria have already been detected in some tissue samples, but researchers are continuing to culture the samples to identify the microorganisms and determine whether infections caused the deaths. Even if bacteria are confirmed as the cause, scientists will need to establish why the infections have become particularly deadly this year. Uhart said changes in marine conditions, including rising sea temperatures potentially associated with climate change or El Nino, could have created conditions in which bacteria become strong enough to overcome the calves' immune defences. Researchers are therefore trying to identify the factors that may have triggered the unusually large-scale deaths. Southern right whales received their name from whalers who considered them the "right" animals to hunt because they moved slowly, stayed close to shore and floated after being killed, according to the International Whaling Commission. Although illegal hunting continued into the 1970s, the species has gradually recovered since receiving international protection in 1935. However, the whales still face threats common to whale populations worldwide, including declining food supplies, entanglement in fishing gear, oil spills and collisions with ships. Researchers warn that if deaths on this scale occur repeatedly, they could slow the population's recovery. By determining what is killing the calves, scientists hope to identify ways to protect the vulnerable whale population. "If the cause relates to something that we are doing as humans, then we need to change that," Uhart said. "We don't want to endanger these whales again."

North Korea launched a ballistic missile toward the sea on Saturday, according to South Korea’s military, continuing a series of weapons tests as tensions between the two Koreas increase following land mine explosions near their border that injured three South Korean soldiers. South Korea’s Joint Chiefs of Staff said the missile was fired from the Wonsan area on North Korea’s eastern coast and traveled more than 700 kilometers (435 miles). South Korean and U.S. forces were examining the details of the launch. Japan’s Defense Ministry said the missile fell outside Japan’s exclusive economic zone. South Korea’s military increased surveillance and maintained a heightened state of readiness in anticipation of additional launches. Seoul also continued to coordinate closely with the United States and Japan over the situation. The office overseeing South Korea’s national security urged Pyongyang to stop its repeated ballistic missile launches immediately. It described the tests as violations of U.N. Security Council sanctions and said they were serious actions that could further complicate efforts to manage the current tensions. U.S. Pacific Command said the missile launch did not present an immediate danger to American personnel or territory or to U.S. allies. The latest missile test occurred one day after Kim Yo Jong, the influential sister of North Korean leader Kim Jong Un, criticized South Korea's demand that Pyongyang apologize for the Sept. 21 land mine explosions. The blasts occurred roughly 10 meters (11 yards) south of the military demarcation line separating the two countries. South Korea said a joint investigation with the U.S.-led United Nations Command concluded that North Korean mines caused the explosions. The U.N. Command subsequently said North Korea had violated the armistice agreement that brought the 1950-53 Korean War to an end. Seoul has also urged Pyongyang to stop strengthening its border defenses, including laying mines and constructing anti-tank barriers. These activities have intensified since Kim Jong Un abandoned his government's previous policy of seeking reconciliation with South Korea in 2024 and declared the South to be a permanent enemy. Kim Yo Jong, who is widely considered one of the most influential figures in North Korea, rejected South Korea’s demands over the mine incident on Friday. She called them “utterly pathetic” and said Pyongyang planned to permanently sever relations with Seoul. In an earlier statement, she denied that North Korea was responsible for the explosions and warned that her country could respond if South Korean forces attacked North Korean troops working on border fortifications. Saturday’s missile firing was the latest in a series of military activities by North Korea in recent weeks. These have included missile launches, live-fire military drills and the introduction of a new warship. Kim Jong Un has continued expanding and displaying North Korea’s nuclear capabilities despite calls from the United States to resume diplomatic negotiations. Wonsan was also the location of a Sept. 20 weapons test that North Korean state media described as involving a hypersonic missile system. North Korea has developed a broad range of weapons intended to challenge and potentially overwhelm missile defenses in South Korea. Diplomatic relations between North Korea and the United States and South Korea have remained largely frozen since nuclear negotiations between Kim Jong Un and U.S. President Donald Trump broke down in 2019. Since then, Kim has increasingly strengthened ties with Moscow, providing thousands of troops and substantial quantities of weapons to support Russian President Vladimir Putin’s war in Ukraine. After years of expanding its weapons program, North Korea now possesses a significant stockpile of nuclear-capable missiles. Its arsenal includes long-range missiles that could potentially reach the U.S. mainland as well as shorter-range weapons capable of targeting South Korea and Japan. In August, Trump reduced the scale of a major military exercise with South Korea, apparently in an effort to create conditions for renewed dialogue with Kim. North Korea has long criticized such exercises, describing them as preparations for an invasion. Pyongyang has so far rejected Trump’s efforts to reopen talks. North Korea says Washington must first end what it calls its “hostile policy,” which includes U.S.-led sanctions and joint military exercises with South Korea. It also insists that Washington abandon denuclearization as a requirement for negotiations.

A small preliminary study by researchers at the University of California, San Francisco suggests that reducing ultra-processed foods may help ease symptoms of depression. Published Sept. 23 in JAMA Psychiatry and funded by the National Institutes of Health, the study is believed to be the first to compare depression symptoms in the same participants before and after they switched from their regular diet to one containing healthier foods. The pilot study involved only 20 people. However, senior author Andrew Krystal, MD, said the research showed that a larger study examining the possible link between diet and mental health is feasible. Depression symptoms improved after dietary changeParticipants reduced their consumption of ultra-processed foods by more than 85%. Following the dietary change, they recorded moderate to substantial improvements on three measures of depression. Their anxiety symptoms also improved slightly. Ultra-processed foods include packaged snacks, fast food, sugary beverages and other heavily manufactured products. They often contain ingredients such as preservatives, artificial colors, flavor enhancers and emulsifiers. "Reducing the amount of ultra-processed food in our diet can be challenging," said Nyasha Chagwedera, MD, PhD, an assistant professor in UCSF's Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences. She said such foods are often appealing, inexpensive and convenient. They can also stimulate the release of dopamine, a brain chemical associated with pleasure and reward, which may encourage people to keep eating them. Researchers examine possible gut-brain linkThe participants had an average age of 44, and 70% were women. Fourteen participants also had anxiety. All participants had a high body mass index and at least one metabolic condition, such as high blood pressure, diabetes or elevated LDL cholesterol. Researchers divided the participants into two groups. One group continued its usual diet for four weeks, while the other followed a diet low in ultra-processed foods. Participants bought and selected their own food with guidance from the research team. After four weeks, the groups switched diets. Chagwedera, who founded UCSF's Metabolic and Mental Health Program, said a possible explanation for the link between ultra-processed foods and depression could involve changes in the gut. She suggested that these foods may damage the gut's protective lining, potentially contributing to low-level, long-term inflammation throughout the body. Such inflammation could directly contribute to depression or make some people more vulnerable to it. Larger study plannedResearchers stressed that the findings are preliminary because of the small number of participants. They plan to test the possible connection in a larger study, with enrollment for the second phase expected to begin in 2028. Source: Science Daily

Growing from a tadpole into a young frog is a difficult process. Legs emerge, tails disappear and lungs develop for life on land, while the young amphibians remain vulnerable to predators such as fish. At the Aquarium of the Pacific’s frog nursery, however, hundreds of critically endangered mountain yellow-legged frogs and tadpoles are being raised under the care of conservationists before being returned to the wild. The species was once the most common vertebrate in its mountain habitat, but its wild population had fallen to fewer than 200 by 2021. The Long Beach aquarium last month marked the release of its 1,000th frog since 2020, when a wildfire destroyed much of the species’ remaining habitat. More than 650 frogs were released in August, including nearly 400 raised at the aquarium. Captive breeding and rearing programmes for the species began in the early 2000s under the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. “Although they're pretty slow growers, given the right conditions, frogs are pretty successful, so my hope is that we can get them back,” said Erin Lundy, the aquarium’s conservation initiatives manager. Mountain yellow-legged frogs are important to their native ecosystems. They provide food for several animals, while their tadpoles help keep streams and other waterways clean by feeding on algae and decaying organic material. Threats to the frog populationThe frogs began facing serious threats in the late 1800s after nonnative trout were introduced into their habitat for recreational fishing. The fish eat tadpoles. In areas where trout were removed, frog numbers began to recover. The species is also vulnerable to chytrid fungus, which has contributed to the decline or extinction of hundreds of amphibian species around the world. The mountain yellow-legged frog suffered another major setback in 2020 when the Bobcat Fire destroyed about 95% of its habitat. Heavy rain later caused mudslides in burned areas and sent large amounts of runoff into waterways. Scientists managed to rescue a small number of tadpoles from the affected area. The aquarium raised them and later released them into the wild. The Aquarium of the Pacific now raises hundreds of tadpoles sent from the Los Angeles and San Diego zoos, where the frogs are bred. Lundy was excited when nearly 500 tadpoles recently arrived from the San Diego Zoo. Some came from frogs originally found in the San Jacinto Mountains, while others descended from frogs from the San Bernardino Mountains. They were kept in separate groups because of slight genetic differences. “These guys look amazing,” Lundy said. “These are really, really healthy tadpoles.” Care helps frogs prepare for life in the wildThe tadpoles are fed four to five times a day and eat heavily during this stage of development. Aquarium staff put a mixture of spirulina, fish food and calcium on small plates, allowing the tadpoles to feed much like they would on algae-covered rocks in the wild. Some had already begun growing legs, moving rapidly through the water as they gathered around the food. In another tank, tiny frogs that were not yet ready for release gathered beneath a heat lamp. They had emerged from the water only about two weeks earlier. Frogs become eligible for release once they have all four limbs and have lost their tails. About 60% to 65% of the aquarium’s tadpoles survive to this stage, which Lundy said is considered a high rate. The care team regularly changes the water flow in the tanks to help the young frogs develop strong limbs and become accustomed to different swimming conditions. They are also fed live crickets and fruit flies, while beetles are added to more closely match the insects they would eat in the wild. Lundy once worried that frogs raised in captivity might not know how to survive after release. But one release changed her mind. A young mountain yellow-legged frog jumped from its container, landed on a rock and immediately ate a housefly — an insect it had never encountered before. The experience showed that, despite being raised under human care, the frogs still retain the natural instincts they need to survive.

China plans to complete a new-generation geologic map of Mars by the end of 2028, with the goal of reconstructing the planet’s watery past and developing a Chinese system for dividing Martian geologic time. Hou Zengqian, an academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and chief scientist of China’s Tianwen-3 Mars sample-return mission, announced the plan Monday at a symposium held at the Institute of Geology under the Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. China’s Zhurong rover, which landed on Mars in 2021 as part of the Tianwen-1 mission, has provided new evidence about the planet’s history of water. The findings suggest that a vast ancient ocean still existed about 3.5 billion years ago, while short-lived floods may have occurred around 1.6 billion years ago. These findings, which help fill gaps in understanding how Mars’ ancient climate changed, will be included in the new geologic map. The map will also introduce a Chinese system for dividing Martian geologic time. Mars is currently divided into the Noachian, Hesperian and Amazonian periods, based mainly on the density of visible impact craters rather than specific dates. China hopes its proposed system will eventually gain international acceptance, Hou said. The project will mainly use data from Tianwen-1, along with information from Mars probes operated by the United States and the European Space Agency. Researchers will combine orbital and surface data, including images, spectral readings, radar, gravity and magnetic measurements, to create a global database covering multiple physical features of Mars. Artificial intelligence will play a central role in analyzing the data. Geological expertise will be incorporated into large AI models through rule-based systems to make their results easier to explain. Multi-scale analysis will also help researchers identify features ranging from individual minerals to large tectonic units. The project is expected to produce a 1:5 million-scale global geologic map of Mars, a 1:50,000-scale map of the rover landing area and several thematic atlases by the end of 2028. It will also produce what researchers describe as the world’s first intelligent geologic map of Mars and serve as a model for future geological mapping of the moon, Venus and asteroids. Yang Zhiming, director of the Institute of Geology, said geological mapping has been a major focus of the institute for 70 years. Its work has expanded from regional and national maps to the moon and now Mars. Such mapping, Yang said, provides scientific support for China’s planetary exploration program in deciding where to go, what to study and why.

NASA is providing additional support and funding to help Boeing fix its troubled Starliner spacecraft and return it to service as soon as possible. The Starliner faced a series of problems during a 2024 test flight, leaving its two astronauts, Butch Wilmore and Suni Williams, at the International Space Station for nearly a year. NASA later classified the mission as a crew-endangering “Type A mishap,” the agency’s most serious category. NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman said Monday that Boeing is expected to launch an upgraded Starliner to the space station by December. The spacecraft will carry cargo but no astronauts. Astronauts are not expected to fly aboard Starliner again until 2028, as NASA and Boeing work on safety improvements that could take months or longer to complete. Dana Weigel, a NASA manager, said all of Starliner’s problems must be fully addressed before astronauts return to the spacecraft. “Bottom line: We’re on the right path,” said NASA astronaut Woody Hoburg, who will command the next Starliner mission. Hoburg described Wilmore and Williams, who have since retired, as “American heroes” and said he was honored to follow them. NASA had sought two U.S.-based systems for carrying astronauts to and from orbit after the space shuttle program ended. The agency awarded billions of dollars to Boeing and SpaceX to develop those services. SpaceX became the first private company to send astronauts into orbit for NASA in 2020 and is preparing for its 14th crewed NASA mission later this week. After two uncrewed Starliner test flights, Boeing finally sent Wilmore and Williams to the space station. However, the astronauts eventually returned to Earth aboard a SpaceX spacecraft about nine months later. SpaceX is planning to gradually move away from its Falcon 9 rockets and Dragon capsules in favor of its larger Starship, which reached orbit for the first time Monday. That has increased NASA’s interest in getting Starliner back on track. Weigel said additional Starliner upgrades and new rocket certifications will cost NASA another $359 million. The planned fixes include replacing valves and seals. The International Space Station is expected to be retired and brought down from orbit by 2031. Meanwhile, several U.S. companies are developing private space stations that will require dependable spacecraft to transport astronauts and supplies. SpaceX’s Starship is too large for such docking missions, while the company’s main goals include travel to the moon and Mars. Asked why NASA does not abandon Starliner and seek another option, Isaacman said the agency remains committed to completing the project with Boeing. “We always were committed to seeing this through with Boeing,” he said, adding that the program is now “on a very good path.”

SpaceX’s massive Starship reached orbit for the first time Monday and successfully deployed 26 of the company’s most advanced Starlink satellites, but controllers ended the mission earlier than planned as a safety precaution. The spacecraft reentered the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean and splashed down north of Hawaii about three hours after lifting off from southern Texas. SpaceX had planned a 10-hour mission involving six complete orbits of Earth to demonstrate the spacecraft’s readiness for NASA’s Artemis lunar program. Starship tipped over and burst into flames after hitting the water, bringing the flight to a dramatic conclusion. The mission faced an early setback when one of Starship’s engines shut down prematurely. However, the remaining systems performed well, and because the failed engine was no longer required, flight controllers decided after several tense minutes to continue. “Starship is orbital,” Mission Control announced, prompting cheers at SpaceX’s launch site. NASA Administrator Jared Isaacman congratulated SpaceX for reaching orbit while managing the mission in what he described as a safe, responsible and inspirational manner. The 407-foot (124-meter) rocket, billed as the largest and most powerful ever built, carried 26 advanced Starlink satellites. They were deployed individually to join more than 11,000 older satellites already providing internet services worldwide. SpaceX later said it chose to terminate the flight early “out of an abundance of caution” because of the engine problem. Monday’s launch marked Starship’s 14th full-scale flight from the southern tip of Texas in three years. Previous test flights traveled only as far as the Indian Ocean, covering roughly half the globe, with several ending in fiery failures. This time, SpaceX intended to send Starship around Earth six times at an altitude of about 170 miles (275 kilometers), with the spacecraft traveling at roughly 17,500 mph (28,000 kph). Instead, controllers brought it down after only a couple of orbits. The first-stage booster was also not designed to return to the Texas launch site during Monday’s flight. It instead fell into the Gulf of Mexico several minutes after liftoff. SpaceX plans to review the mission before attempting to return Starship to the launch pad. Musk has stressed the importance of avoiding debris falling over populated areas, saying the company is therefore proceeding cautiously. Depending on the findings from Monday’s flight, the next Starship could attempt to return to Starbase, where giant mechanical arms are designed to catch the hovering spacecraft. Musk has estimated the chances of a successful catch at about even odds or slightly better. If successful, SpaceX could fly the spacecraft again by the end of this year or early next year. The fully reusable Starship was designed to reduce launch costs. SpaceX recovered the previous Starship from the Indian Ocean in July, allowing engineers to inspect it directly and make changes to the newly launched spacecraft’s heat shield. SpaceX is seeking certification for Starship to conduct regular orbital flights, a major step toward its ambitions for lunar and Mars missions. NASA’s Artemis III mission could launch as early as next summer and involves multiple spacecraft docking in Earth orbit, including an Orion capsule carrying astronauts and commercial lunar landers. Under the planned sequence, Jeff Bezos’ Blue Moon would launch first, followed by Orion. Starship would then dock with Orion after Blue Moon separates for its lunar mission. Artemis IV is scheduled for no earlier than 2028 and could see astronauts land on the moon using either Blue Moon or Starship, depending on which spacecraft is ready. Later lunar missions are expected to alternate between the two systems. Musk originally developed Starship with the goal of transporting large numbers of people to Mars. For now, SpaceX is prioritizing lunar missions and plans to use Starship to deploy large numbers of satellites, eventually reducing reliance on the company’s Falcon 9 rocket. A second Starship launch facility is nearing completion at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida, while a third is planned for Louisiana.

Scientists have developed a simpler and more affordable method to measure a biologically active form of phosphorus in soil, potentially offering new insights into how soil microbes help plants obtain the nutrient. Phosphorus is essential for plant growth and food production, but natural reserves of the nutrient are finite. Understanding how phosphorus is stored, transformed and released in soil could help maintain agricultural productivity while reducing nutrient waste and environmental impacts. An international research team involving scientists from Sultan Qaboos University, the James Hutton Institute, Oman’s Environment Authority and other institutions refined a laboratory technique for measuring DNA-bound phosphorus, or DNA-P, in soil, according to a study published in the Journal of Agricultural and Marine Sciences. DNA-P is part of the organic phosphorus pool associated with living microorganisms. Soil microbes continuously absorb, transform and release nutrients, making DNA-P a potential indicator of the biologically active part of the soil phosphorus cycle. The researchers modified an existing analytical method and tested it on 32 soil types collected from across the United Kingdom. They found that the revised procedure was easier and less costly while maintaining the accuracy and sensitivity required for reliable measurements. A major improvement involved removing enzyme treatments that had previously been part of the testing process. The researchers found the treatments were unnecessary, allowing the procedure to be simplified and reducing its cost. However, ultrafiltration remained an essential part of the process because it separates DNA-bound phosphorus from other phosphorus-containing compounds. Without this step, measurements of DNA-P could be less accurate. The study found that DNA-P accounted for only a small portion of total organic phosphorus in the tested soils. However, its levels were strongly associated with soil pH, microbial biomass phosphorus, organic matter and phosphorus dissolved in soil water. The findings indicate that DNA-P may be more closely linked to living soil microorganisms than to stable, long-term phosphorus reserves. It could therefore provide researchers with a useful indicator of the more active part of the soil phosphorus cycle. The improved testing method could make it easier for scientists to study biologically active phosphorus and better understand how soil microbes influence the amount of phosphorus available to plants. With agriculture facing increasing pressure to use limited phosphorus resources more efficiently, the method could support future research into soil fertility, nutrient management and more sustainable farming practices. Source: Science Daily

A $30 million NASA-sponsored robotic spacecraft, Link, reentered Earth's atmosphere on Friday after failing to rescue the decaying $364 million Swift Observatory, Katalyst Space Technologies announced. Launched July 3, the three-armed satellite experienced electronic failures in two reaction wheels and valve issues causing communication-disrupting spins. Though controllers regained control and tested its three-foot robotic arms within 7 to 9 miles (12 to 15 kilometers) of Swift to snap photos, insufficient fuel forced NASA to call off the mission in August. Swift, a 22-year-old observatory launched in 2004 to detect gamma-ray bursts and cosmic explosions, experienced accelerated orbital decay due to intense solar flares. After temporarily suspending observations to reduce drag, NASA expects Swift to reenter in early November. NASA official Shawn Domagal-Goldman and Katalyst CEO Ghonhee Lee stated the ambitious project provided vital practice and a foundation for future satellite-recovery endeavors. Swift has resumed scanning during its remaining month as NASA works to fill the observational gap.